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Echoes of Evolution: Unveiling Nature’s Repetitive Secrets in Stick Insects

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Friday, May 24, 2024

Research on stick insects shows short-term predictable evolution, but long-term changes introduce unpredictability due to random events and new mutations.Researchers present evidence of repeatable evolutionary patterns in California’s stick insect populations, demonstrating that while short-term evolution can be predictable due to constant environmental pressures like predation, long-term evolutionary outcomes involve more randomness due to events like mutations and climatic changes.Among evolutionary scientists there is a long-standing debate that goes something like this: Does evolution happen in a predictable pattern or does it depend on chance events and contingency? That is, if you could turn back the clock, as celebrated scientist Stephen Jay Gould (1941-2002) described in his famous metaphor, “Replaying the Tape of Life,” would life on Earth evolve, once again, as something similar to what we know now, or would it look very, very different?A shrub jay with a Timema stick insect in its beak. Credit: Henri TruchassoutThe Complexity of Evolution“If you frame it as an either/or question, it’s too simplistic,” says Utah State University evolutionary biologist Zachariah Gompert. “The answer isn’t ‘completely random’ or ‘completely deterministic and predictable.’ And yet, examining short time scales, we can find predictable, repeatable evolutionary patterns.” Gompert and colleagues report evidence of repeatable evolution in populations of stick insects in the May 24, 2024, online edition of the American Association for the Advancement of Science’s journal Science Advances. Collaborating authors on the paper include Gompert’s long-time collaborator Patrik Nosil and other researchers from France’s University of Montpelier, Brazil’s Federal University of São Paulo, the University of Nevada, Reno, and Notre Dame University. The research is supported by the National Science Foundation and the European Research Council.A green Timema cristinae morph stick insect blends in with California lilac shrub (Ceanothus spinosus). Credit: Aaron ComeaultResearch Findings on Stick InsectsThe team examined three decades of data on the frequency of cryptic color-pattern morphs in the stick insect species Timema cristinae in ten naturally replicate populations in California. T. cristinae is polymorphic in regard to its body color and pattern. Some insects are green, which allows the wingless, plant-feeding insect to blend in with California lilac (Ceanothus spinosus) shrubs. In contrast, green striped morphs disappear against chamise (Adenostoma fasciculatum) shrubs.Hiding amongst the plants is one of T. christinae’s key defenses as hungry birds, such as scrub jays, are insatiable predators of the stick insects.A striped Timema cristinae morph stick insect blends in with a chamise shrub (Adenostoma fasciculatum). Credit: Moritz MuschickEvolutionary Patterns and Natural Selection“Bird predation is a constant driver shaping the insects’ organismal traits, including coloration and striped vs. non-striped,” says Gompert, associate professor in USU’s Department of Biology and the USU Ecology Center. “We observed predictable ‘up-and-down’ fluctuations in stripe frequency in all populations, representing repeatable evolutionary dynamics based on standing genetic variation.”He says a field experiment demonstrates these fluctuations involved negative frequency-dependent natural selection (NFDS), where cryptic color patterns are more beneficial when rare rather than common. This is likely because birds develop a ‘search image’ for the most common prey.Utah State University biologist Zach Gompert and colleagues observe recurring evolutionary changes, over time in stick insects; publish findings in the May 24, 2024, edition of Science Advances. Credit: M. MuffolettoPredictability and Randomness in Evolution“At short time scales, evolution involving existing variations can be quite predictable,” says Gompert, who received a National Science Foundation CAREER grant in 2019 to support his research. “You can count on certain drivers always being there, such as birds feeding on the insects.”But at longer time scales, evolutionary dynamics become less predictable.“The populations might experience a chance event, such as a severe drought or a flooding event, that disrupts the status quo and thus, the predictable outcomes,” Gompert says.Challenges in Evolutionary StudiesOn long time scales, a new mutation in the species could introduce a rare trait, he says. “That’s about as close to truly random as you can get.”“Rare things are easily lost by chance, so there’s a strong probability a new mutation could disappear before it gains a stronghold,” he says. “Indeed, another species of Timema stick insect that also feeds on chamise either never had or quickly lost the mutations making the cryptic stripe trait. Thus, the evolution of stripe is not a repeatable outcome of evolution at this long scale.”Gompert notes replicated, long-term studies from natural populations, including research on the famous Darwin’s finches, are rare.“Because most of this work is restricted to one or few populations, it is difficult to draw inferences on repeatability among multiple evolutionary independent populations,” he says. “Such studies are challenging to implement not only because they take concerted effort, but also because you can’t rush time.”Reference: “Evolution repeats itself in replicate long-term studies in the wild” 24 May 2024, Science Advances. DOI: 10.1126/sciadv.adl3149Gompert, who is designated a High Ranked Scholar by ScholarGPS, has developed, with USU colleagues, a research-intensive, interactive introductory biology laboratory class to introduce undergraduates to research. He and colleagues also developed an interactive presentation about evolution for all ages, called “Nabokov’s Butterflies,” that was presented at the USU College of Science’s Science Unwrapped public outreach program in 2022.

Research on stick insects shows short-term predictable evolution, but long-term changes introduce unpredictability due to random events and new mutations.

Researchers present evidence of repeatable evolutionary patterns in California’s stick insect populations, demonstrating that while short-term evolution can be predictable due to constant environmental pressures like predation, long-term evolutionary outcomes involve more randomness due to events like mutations and climatic changes.

Among evolutionary scientists there is a long-standing debate that goes something like this: Does evolution happen in a predictable pattern or does it depend on chance events and contingency? That is, if you could turn back the clock, as celebrated scientist Stephen Jay Gould (1941-2002) described in his famous metaphor, “Replaying the Tape of Life,” would life on Earth evolve, once again, as something similar to what we know now, or would it look very, very different?

Shrub Jay With Timema Stick Insect in Its Beak

A shrub jay with a Timema stick insect in its beak. Credit: Henri Truchassout

The Complexity of Evolution

“If you frame it as an either/or question, it’s too simplistic,” says Utah State University evolutionary biologist Zachariah Gompert. “The answer isn’t ‘completely random’ or ‘completely deterministic and predictable.’ And yet, examining short time scales, we can find predictable, repeatable evolutionary patterns.”

Gompert and colleagues report evidence of repeatable evolution in populations of stick insects in the May 24, 2024, online edition of the American Association for the Advancement of Science’s journal Science Advances. Collaborating authors on the paper include Gompert’s long-time collaborator Patrik Nosil and other researchers from France’s University of Montpelier, Brazil’s Federal University of São Paulo, the University of Nevada, Reno, and Notre Dame University. The research is supported by the National Science Foundation and the European Research Council.

Green Timema Stick Insect Blends In With California Lilac Shrub

A green Timema cristinae morph stick insect blends in with California lilac shrub (Ceanothus spinosus). Credit: Aaron Comeault

Research Findings on Stick Insects

The team examined three decades of data on the frequency of cryptic color-pattern morphs in the stick insect species Timema cristinae in ten naturally replicate populations in California. T. cristinae is polymorphic in regard to its body color and pattern. Some insects are green, which allows the wingless, plant-feeding insect to blend in with California lilac (Ceanothus spinosus) shrubs. In contrast, green striped morphs disappear against chamise (Adenostoma fasciculatum) shrubs.

Hiding amongst the plants is one of T. christinae’s key defenses as hungry birds, such as scrub jays, are insatiable predators of the stick insects.

Striped Stick Insect Blends In With Chamise Shrub

A striped Timema cristinae morph stick insect blends in with a chamise shrub (Adenostoma fasciculatum). Credit: Moritz Muschick

Evolutionary Patterns and Natural Selection

“Bird predation is a constant driver shaping the insects’ organismal traits, including coloration and striped vs. non-striped,” says Gompert, associate professor in USU’s Department of Biology and the USU Ecology Center. “We observed predictable ‘up-and-down’ fluctuations in stripe frequency in all populations, representing repeatable evolutionary dynamics based on standing genetic variation.”

He says a field experiment demonstrates these fluctuations involved negative frequency-dependent natural selection (NFDS), where cryptic color patterns are more beneficial when rare rather than common. This is likely because birds develop a ‘search image’ for the most common prey.

Utah State University biologist Zach Gompert and colleagues observe recurring evolutionary changes, over time in stick insects; publish findings in the May 24, 2024, edition of Science Advances. Credit: M. Muffoletto

Predictability and Randomness in Evolution

“At short time scales, evolution involving existing variations can be quite predictable,” says Gompert, who received a National Science Foundation CAREER grant in 2019 to support his research. “You can count on certain drivers always being there, such as birds feeding on the insects.”

But at longer time scales, evolutionary dynamics become less predictable.

“The populations might experience a chance event, such as a severe drought or a flooding event, that disrupts the status quo and thus, the predictable outcomes,” Gompert says.

Challenges in Evolutionary Studies

On long time scales, a new mutation in the species could introduce a rare trait, he says. “That’s about as close to truly random as you can get.”

“Rare things are easily lost by chance, so there’s a strong probability a new mutation could disappear before it gains a stronghold,” he says. “Indeed, another species of Timema stick insect that also feeds on chamise either never had or quickly lost the mutations making the cryptic stripe trait. Thus, the evolution of stripe is not a repeatable outcome of evolution at this long scale.”

Gompert notes replicated, long-term studies from natural populations, including research on the famous Darwin’s finches, are rare.

“Because most of this work is restricted to one or few populations, it is difficult to draw inferences on repeatability among multiple evolutionary independent populations,” he says. “Such studies are challenging to implement not only because they take concerted effort, but also because you can’t rush time.”

Reference: “Evolution repeats itself in replicate long-term studies in the wild” 24 May 2024, Science Advances.
DOI: 10.1126/sciadv.adl3149

Gompert, who is designated a High Ranked Scholar by ScholarGPS, has developed, with USU colleagues, a research-intensive, interactive introductory biology laboratory class to introduce undergraduates to research. He and colleagues also developed an interactive presentation about evolution for all ages, called “Nabokov’s Butterflies,” that was presented at the USU College of Science’s Science Unwrapped public outreach program in 2022.

Read the full story here.

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Biden Awards Three Climate Experts Nation’s Highest Science Honor

Richard Alley, Lawrence Edwards and David Tilman were among the two dozen honorees who received the National Medal of Science or the National Medal of Technology and Innovation last week

January 6, 20252 min readBiden Awards Three Climate Experts Nation’s Highest Science HonorRichard Alley, Lawrence Edwards and David Tilman were among the two dozen honorees who received the National Medal of Science or the National Medal of Technology and Innovation last weekBy Chelsea Harvey & E&E News Rhône Glacier, the source of the river of the same name, is located in the Swiss Alps. Like many other alpine glaciers around the world, it has retreated significantly in the last 150 years as global temperatures rise. GmbH & Co. KG/Alamy Stock PhotoCLIMATEWIRE | The White House recognized more than two dozen scientists and innovators Friday with what will likely be the Biden administration's last National Medals of Science and National Medals of Technology and Innovation.The awards honored researchers ranging from astrophysicists and oncologists, as well as the pharmaceutical companies that developed the mRNA vaccines for Covid-19. Three climate and environmental scientists were included in the bunch.Richard Alley, a geoscientist at Pennsylvania State University, received a National Medal of Science for his decades of research on melting glaciers and ice sheets, sea-level rise and other climate impacts.On supporting science journalismIf you're enjoying this article, consider supporting our award-winning journalism by subscribing. By purchasing a subscription you are helping to ensure the future of impactful stories about the discoveries and ideas shaping our world today.“Spending long tours in the most remote and extreme environments on Earth, Richard Alley has catapulted climate predictions to great heights and raised new urgency to address the climate crisis, moving the world toward a sustainable future,” said Kei Koizumi, principal deputy director for science, society and policy at the White House Office of Science and Technology Policy, who announced the awards.Also recognized was R. Lawrence Edwards, a climate scientist at the University of Minnesota. Edwards was awarded a National Medal of Science for his work on reconstructing the planet’s climate history dating back to the prehistoric ages.“Lawrence Edward’s innovative research methods shed light on the rate, scale and drivers of climate change and the impact on human civilization, defining him as one of the most celebrated earth scientists of our time,” Koizumi said.G. David Tilman, an ecologist at the University of Minnesota, also received a National Medal of Science for his research on biodiversity and conservation, including the ways that the planet’s diversity of life helps bolster ecosystems against environmental disturbances like climate change.“David Tilman’s work proves the extraordinary variety of life that exists on Earth is essential to productive ecosystems, sustainable agriculture, renewable energy and more, helping to feed and power the world while making conservation both a strategic and moral calling,” Koizumi said.Altogether, the White House awarded 14 National Medals of Science and 11 National Medals of Technology and Innovation.“This year’s honorees represent a simple truth as I’ve always believed. America can be defined by a single word: possibilities,” Biden said at the ceremony on Friday. “That’s who we are: a nation of possibilities.”Reprinted from E&E News with permission from POLITICO, LLC. Copyright 2025. E&E News provides essential news for energy and environment professionals.

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Meet the Tiny, Adorable Owls That Have Mastered the Art of Hiding

One of the smallest owls in North America, the northern saw-whet lives among us and is rarely seen—but one volunteer science project aims to find them and uncover their secrets year after year

The birds weigh about as much as a bar of soap. That’s how Melissa Boyle Acuti describes the northern saw-whet owl, the smallest owl species found in Maryland and one of the smallest in North America. They’re hardly bigger than a fist with a ping pong ball on top, she adds. During the fall in Edgewater, Maryland, a small group of volunteers helps catch and band these little owls from sunset to midnight. They’re participating in Project Owlnet, an initiative that seeks to learn more about these birds and their migration and that supports an ever-expanding network of migrant owl banding stations. Boyle Acuti is the banding station manager for Project Owlnet’s site at the Smithsonian Environmental Research Center (SERC) in Edgewater. She leads the participants through the project’s processes. The group uses an audio lure to entice the birds, capturing them in mist nets to bring back to the banding station. Once there, they place aluminum bands on the birds—“friendship bracelets for science,” as they’re called within the project. Project participants also measure the owls’ bills, wings and tails. They use a blacklight to look at the underside of the owls’ wings and see their molt pattern, which helps determine their ages, a difficult task. Old feathers don’t glow as brightly under the light because the pigment has faded, while new feathers have a brighter glow, Boyle Acuti says. Project Owlnet volunteer Kerry Wixted uses a blacklight to examine the wings of a saw-whet owl in 2023 Courtesy of Project Owlnet And how do the owls behave during all of this? “We definitely get beak snapping at times,” Boyle Acuti says, though most of them are fairly docile, she adds—their usual behavior is to sit and look camouflaged, after all. “I feel like there are times, during migration especially, it seems some of them are like ‘Hey, I got places to go, I don’t have time for this.’ But I might just be anthropomorphizing them.” Dave Brinker, one of the project’s founders, alongside Scott Weidensaul and Steve Huy, says that the start date of the project is noted as 1994, but it began casually before then. “It kind of grew organically out of attempts to get other bird banders to start banding saw-whets,” Brinker says. “Once it was really starting to do well, people said ‘Well when did you start this?’ We looked back and we kind of picked 1994 as a good point to say ‘Yeah we were pretty serious about it roughly then.’” Project Owlnet has banding stations around the United States and Canada. The data the teams collect may help to tell the story of the species’ behaviors and migration patterns. The future of migration tracking is the Motus system, Boyle Acuti says, which uses nanotag tech to track birds, bats and insects. Motus’ project No. 753 pertains to northern saw-whet owls. Workers put Motus radio tags on the owls, and when the birds pass by specialized receiving stations, the creatures’ travels are revealed. “The perception was that it was a rare bird,” Brinker says. “With what we’ve done with Project Owlnet and things over the years here, we’ve kind of flipped it on its head. The way you need to present it is: It’s a rarely observed or rarely seen bird.” These birds are good at being hidden, and they must be to survive, both Brinker and Boyle Acuti say, because anything larger than them is a potential predator. “They’re here, but they’re not calling attention to themselves,” she says. “I think the most fascinating thing is how many of them potentially are around our area, and nobody really knows about them.” A northern saw-whet owl on a tree branch in Canada Education Images / Universal Images Group via Getty Images In recent years, one saw-whet did achieve high profile status: Rocky, an owl that was rescued from the Rockefeller Center Christmas tree in New York City, treated at a wildlife rehabilitation site and later released in 2020. Rocky’s story led to multiple books and merchandise. She was discovered hidden among the tree’s branches, typical for the life of a saw-whet. 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A life-changing device for diabetics

Read the winning essay from the Young Science Writer of the Year 2024 award

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Science-Backed Sleep Tips from 2024 to Help You Snooze Better

From the “sleepy girl mocktail” to power naps, researchers explained which sleep trends this year really help with quality shut-eye

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And slumbering bodies are very fickle: sleep quality can be easily thrown off by any number of environmental disturbances or emotional or physical stressors.We’re channeling some of the most helpful science-backed tips and findings that sleep experts have shared with us this year—so hopefully we feel more refreshed and reenergized in 2025.Short Daytime Naps Sharpen the MindOn supporting science journalismIf you're enjoying this article, consider supporting our award-winning journalism by subscribing. By purchasing a subscription you are helping to ensure the future of impactful stories about the discoveries and ideas shaping our world today.If you’re feeling sluggish in the middle of the day, a short snooze could be the refresher the brain needs. Growing evidence suggests that daytime power naps can actually give a boost to critical thinking skills, memory, productivity and mood. As Science of Health columnist Lydia Denworth reports, there is a science to napping effectively.It’s best to keep napping sessions 20 to 30 minutes long and before 5 P.M., for those who are regularly awake during daytime hours. That’s enough time to get in a cycle of “light sleep,” which is easier to wake up in, while avoiding disruptions to regular sleep at night. But note that regularly taking very long naps could be a sign of an underlying health issue.Mariia Borovkova/Getty ImagesStaying in Bed All Day, or “Bed Rotting,” Can Worsen Sleep“Bed rotting,” or opting to stay in bed for prolonged periods of time, is one of social media’s favorite mental health trends. Conditions or disabilities may cause people to remain in bed, but bed rotting is seen as a kind of elective counterculture to “productive” activities—the opposite of working, exercising or studying. People who bed rot often claim that they feel rejuvenated after hours or even days during which they stay in bed, only leaving to go to the bathroom or get food.But experts say this behavior can throw off the body’s internal clock, or circadian rhythm, which controls sleep-wake cycles. This could alter someone’s sleep drive (making them feel restless when they should be normally asleep) and sleep cues (making them less likely to associate their bed with sleepy times). To get out of a bed rotting cycle, experts say to first evaluate the reason why you feel the need for that kind of mental recharge. Then try to consistently wake up early in your sleep-wake cycle, no matter what time you went to sleep, and get natural light for an hour upon waking, if possible.The “Sleepy Girl Mocktail” Reminded Us Magnesium Is Important for SleepThe “sleepy girl mocktail,” a concoction of cherry juice, seltzer and magnesium, was another trend that took off this year. People on TikTok touted that the homemade sip helped them slip into slumber more easily. But evidence that it works is up in the air. That said, one of the ingredients, magnesium, has been shown to play a role in sleep. The mineral can help relax muscles and affect pathways in the brain that stabilize mood and anxiety. Magnesium supplements can be found at local drugstores—but some types can act as a laxative that can disrupt sleep.Koldunova_Anna/Getty ImagesSleeping on the Floor Could Benefit Your Back—SometimesPeople have been sleeping on the floor for centuries—and for some cultures today, it’s important to well-being. Some people with certain back ailments also could find floor sleeping particularly helpful.According to some physiotherapists, lying flat on your back, splayed out like a starfish, or tucking your knees up with your back on the floor helps stretch and take pressure off your back. The firmness of the floor might also give more support than a very soft mattress.Many experts agree that the practice isn’t appropriate for every back condition, however. The flatness of floors could lead to joint stiffness, put more pressure on hips and buttocks or reduce the curved shape of your spine, which can result in back pain.Sleeping Solo Might Be Better for You—And Your PartnerA 2023 survey found that up to a third of couples in the U.S. got a “sleep divorce,” a trend that further caught on this year as more people, including celebrities, shared that they are choosing to sleep separately from partners for a better night’s rest.Some evidence suggests that sleeping alone might be better for some couples. A lot of it has to do with differences in sleep compatibility. Research has shown that people with differing sleep schedules, such as night-shift workers and day-shift workers, can have poor sleep if they share a bed, and sleeping with a heavy snorer is more likely to cause fatigue and daytime sleepiness the next day. Researchers note, though, that there are benefits to co-sleeping—it can provide comfort and emotional support, which can relieve stress.Remedies for When Anxiety Keeps You AwakeMany people lost sleep over the stress of this year’s U.S. presidential election—and some may still be lying awake with anxiety. Any stressful event can disrupt sleep quality, but experts say there are actionable tips people can use:Before bed, put away screens, and try to avoid doomscrolling, or overconsuming news—stop when you feel informed. If you’re feeling amped up or angry, de-escalate before getting into bed. Whether it’s practicing meditation, drinking a warm beverage, doing a puzzle or knitting, do an activity that gets you into state of sleepiness first—no matter what time it is. Using a lesson from cognitive behavioral therapy, try to turn negative thoughts into positive ones by focusing on things you’re grateful for, says Sally Ibrahim, a sleep physician at the University Hospitals health system in northeastern Ohio.“If I practice it over and over again, those thoughts will in turn calm me down. It gives me peace and joy,” she says. “And those are the kinds of things that help not only our mental health but sleep.”

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Injuries from Electric Bikes and Electric Scooters Have Tripled. Here’s What to Know

Following a startling spike in electric scooter and e-bike injuries, epidemiologists warn of inadequate infrastructure and safety rules

December 11, 20242 min readInjuries from Electric Bikes and Scooters Have Tripled. Here’s What to KnowFollowing a startling spike in electric scooter and e-bike injuries, epidemiologists warn of inadequate infrastructure and safety rulesBy Ben GuarinoEmergency department visits involving e-scooters have risen dramatically in recent years, according to a new analysis of a database representing U.S. hospitals. Electric scooters and electric bikes have become a common sight in U.S. streets—and, in some cities, on the sidewalks, too. As a general rule, whenever a new kind of vehicle become ubiquitous, injuries tend to follow. Emergency department visits involving these so-called electric micromobility machines tripled in the U.S. between 2019 and 2022, according to a study published this week in the journal Injury Prevention. Men were injured in e-vehicle accidents more frequently than women. And among age groups in such injuries, children and teenagers were the most likely to be under the influence of alcohol.“The tripling of injuries between 2019 and 2022 underscores the rapid adoption of these devices,” says Akshaya Bhagavathula, an associate professor of epidemiology at North Dakota State University and a co-author of the new study. It is also a consequence, he says, of a COVID-era trend in which travelers sought alternatives to public transportation. Small e-vehicles do offer perks such as avoiding traffic and, potentially, helping the planet: The battery-powered engines used in these machines are greener than their combustion equivalents, though net environmental benefits depend on how these vehicles are used.Despite the popularity of e-bikes and e-scooters, “infrastructure, safety regulations and awareness regarding the risks of impaired riding” have not kept up, Bhagavathula says. The epidemiologist and his colleagues searched the National Electronic Injury Surveillance System, a representative database of emergency departments in U.S. hospitals, and found 4,020 visits related to these vehicles in the study’s four-year window. That works out to estimates of 279,990 emergency department visits for e-scooter injuries and 16,600 such visits for e-bike injuries nationwide, the authors say.On supporting science journalismIf you're enjoying this article, consider supporting our award-winning journalism by subscribing. By purchasing a subscription you are helping to ensure the future of impactful stories about the discoveries and ideas shaping our world today.About 10 percent of the total micromobility injuries were associated with the use of alcohol or of alcohol plus drugs. Compared with adults under age 40, children ages 10 to 17 (the youngest cohort studied) had 7.5 times greater odds of these emergency department visits that involved drinking. “As we know, alcohol and [drug] use impair judgement, coordination and balance, significantly [increasing] the risk of injuries,” Bhagavathula says.E-scooter injuries showed the most dramatic rise, from 521 in 2019 to 1,362 in 2022. This corresponds to an estimated nationwide increase from about 20,000 in 2019 to 63,000 in 2022. These devices have “vehicle-specific vulnerabilities,” Bhagavathula says, noting that their relatively small wheels can make them less stable than, for example, traditional bicycles.These findings are in line with other recent reports that describe similar increases. A study published in JAMA Network Open in July found that, from 2017 to 2022, e-bike injuries doubled, and e-scooter injuries increased by 45 percent annually. Meanwhile injuries from human-powered bicycles and scooters remained mostly flat.After lower limbs, heads were the most frequently injured body part tracked in the new study. Not enough riders wear helmets, which is a critical issue, Bhagavathula notes. “Public safety campaigns and local regulations encouraging helmet use could greatly mitigate these risks,” he says, adding that e-mobility companies could do more to promote wearing the proper gear, too.

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