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Ancient Fossil Discovery in South Africa’s Cradle of Humankind Offers New Insights Into Human Origins

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Tuesday, July 23, 2024

An African buffalo in the savanna. Credit: GENUS: DSI-NRF Centre of Excellence in PalaeosciencesNew fossil discoveries at South Africa’s Kromdraai site offer groundbreaking insights into the ancient ecosystems and their role in shaping human evolution, highlighting the interplay between hominins and various bovid species.In the sprawling savannas of South Africa’s Cradle of Humankind, the Kromdraai archaeological site has unveiled a new discovery that significantly enhances our understanding of the ecosystems that influenced human evolution.Researchers have unearthed a collection of fossilized bovids, revealing the presence of previously unknown species that once roamed these ancient grasslands alongside our hominin ancestors. This significant finding, detailed in a study published in Quaternary Science Reviews, not only highlights the biodiversity of the Plio-Pleistocene era but also offers unprecedented insights into the environmental conditions that influenced the development of early human species. Among the notable discoveries is an unknown medium-sized buffalo species, underscoring the complexity of ancient ecosystems and the pivotal role these environments played in shaping the evolutionary pathways of hominins like Paranthropus robustus and early Homo species. “Paleontology often conjures images of dinosaurs, but studying modern animals like bovids is crucial too. Bovids are diverse and successful in Africa, offering insights into both ancient and modern ecosystems. Their evolutionary history is intertwined with ours, as they have been a key part of the landscape and human societies since the Miocene, about 23 million years ago,” Dr Raphael Hanon, lead author and a Postdoctoral Researcher at the Evolutionary Studies Institute, University of Witwatersrand, notes.Insights from the Plio-Pleistocene EraSpearheaded by a collaborative team of researchers from around the globe, this revelation paints a vivid picture of a landscape dominated by expansive grasslands, hinting at the complex interplay of life that thrived in this region during the Plio-Pleistocene era (about 5.3 million years ago). This research marks a significant leap forward in our quest to unravel the mysteries of our planet’s past, providing crucial data for reconstructing the ancient landscapes that were the cradle of humankind. “It is not very common in bovid paleontology to come across a mysterious well-preserved skull. Even if the specimen isn’t complete, the discovery and description of a potential new species of small-sized buffalo is really interesting!” Raphael explains.Antidorcas from Kromdraai Unit P: (a) Right horn-core of a male (A. recki) shown in side and front views (KW 9995). (b) Left horn-core in front and side views (KW 11161). (c) Right horn-core in front and side views (KW 10704). (d) Right horn-core in side and front views (KW 9611). (e) Partial back of the skull (occipital bone) (KW 10410). Scale = 5 cm. Credit: GENUS: DSI-NRF Centre of Excellence in Palaeosciences. Photograph provided by Dr Rapahel HanonThese bovids, members of the family Bovidae, which includes modern-day buffalo, antelopes, and gazelles, serve as a key to unlocking the secrets of the past. Their diversity and abundance at Kromdraai offer a glimpse into the diets and behaviors of both large carnivores and our ancient relatives. As prey, these animals shaped the predatory patterns of the region’s megafauna and, by extension, influenced the survival strategies of hominins such as Paranthropus robustus and early Homo species​.Habitat Preferences and Bovid DiversityThe discovery of extinct species of gazelles such as Gazella gracilior and the presence of a yet-to-be-named buffalo closely related to Syncerus acoelotus indicate a grassland-dominated environment. This finding is corroborated by comparisons with other Plio-Pleistocene sites across South Africa, which suggest that different hominin species were associated with varying habitats.While Australopithecus appeared to favor woodland and closed-wet environments, early Homo species were found in areas adapted to open and dry conditions. The diverse range of bovids associated with Paranthropus, however, suggests a broad environmental adaptability among these hominins. Raphael explains that this research was somewhat challenging. “One of the biggest challenges was to reconstruct and describe the small buffalo skull (Syncerus sp.) to identify it,” he says.“The skull was discovered as dozens of small broken bone pieces and Jean-Baptiste Fourvel and myself spent hours on it to be able to refit most of the pieces together so we would be able to tell what kind of animal it was. Even after refitting all the pieces, it was very fragile – therefore difficult to manipulate and identify. The fossil record of the African buffalo is scarce, especially in South Africa, so it was not easy to find relevant information that could help us identify the skull,” he explains.Small Buffalo Syncerus sp. Skull from Kromdraai Unit P: (a) Front view, (b) Side view, (c) Top view of the frontlet KW 9463. (d) Reconstructed right-side view of the skull. Scale = 5 cm. Credit: GENUS: DSI-NRF Centre of Excellence in Palaeosciences. Photograph by Dr Raphael HanonThe significance of these findings extends beyond the mere identification of ancient animals. The bovid assemblages of Kromdraai, with their mix of older Plio-Pleistocene and younger Pleistocene taxa, offer a window into the changing landscapes of ancient Africa. These changes, recorded in the bones and teeth of the bovids, reflect the dynamic nature of our planet’s ecosystems and the adaptability of life in the face of shifting climates and habitats.Moreover, the study of these fossils provides a chronological marker for the site, with the biochronology indicating that Kromdraai Unit P accumulated between 2.9 and 1.8 million years ago. This range is crucial for understanding the timeline of human evolution in the region, offering potential insights into the appearance of Paranthropus robustus and other significant species in southern Africa.The Kromdraai site continues to be a testament to the richness of our planet’s past, inviting scientists and enthusiasts alike to ponder the intricate connections between the earth’s history and our origins. Raphael is excited to extend his scientific research further. “I will continue to work on bovid paleontology and taxonomy in the future. I hope to be able to conduct a more detailed analysis of specific taxa such as the buffalos or the gazelles in South Africa. Plenty of palaeontological and archaeological sites have yielded a huge amount of bovid fossil material that is just waiting to be studied,” he says.Reference: “New fossil Bovidae (Mammalia: Artiodactyla) from Kromdraai Unit P, South Africa and their implication for biochronology and hominin palaeoecology” by Raphaël Hanon, Jean-Baptiste Fourvel, Recognise Sambo, Nompumelelo Maringa, Christine Steininger, Bernhard Zipfel and José Braga, 26 March 2024, Quaternary Science Reviews.DOI: 10.1016/j.quascirev.2024.108621The study was funded by the Genus-DSI-NRF Centre of Excellence in Palaeosciences.

New fossil discoveries at South Africa’s Kromdraai site offer groundbreaking insights into the ancient ecosystems and their role in shaping human evolution, highlighting the interplay...

African Buffalo in the Savanna Illustration

An African buffalo in the savanna. Credit: GENUS: DSI-NRF Centre of Excellence in Palaeosciences

New fossil discoveries at South Africa’s Kromdraai site offer groundbreaking insights into the ancient ecosystems and their role in shaping human evolution, highlighting the interplay between hominins and various bovid species.

In the sprawling savannas of South Africa’s Cradle of Humankind, the Kromdraai archaeological site has unveiled a new discovery that significantly enhances our understanding of the ecosystems that influenced human evolution.

Researchers have unearthed a collection of fossilized bovids, revealing the presence of previously unknown species that once roamed these ancient grasslands alongside our hominin ancestors. This significant finding, detailed in a study published in Quaternary Science Reviews, not only highlights the biodiversity of the Plio-Pleistocene era but also offers unprecedented insights into the environmental conditions that influenced the development of early human species.

Among the notable discoveries is an unknown medium-sized buffalo species, underscoring the complexity of ancient ecosystems and the pivotal role these environments played in shaping the evolutionary pathways of hominins like Paranthropus robustus and early Homo species. “Paleontology often conjures images of dinosaurs, but studying modern animals like bovids is crucial too. Bovids are diverse and successful in Africa, offering insights into both ancient and modern ecosystems. Their evolutionary history is intertwined with ours, as they have been a key part of the landscape and human societies since the Miocene, about 23 million years ago,” Dr Raphael Hanon, lead author and a Postdoctoral Researcher at the Evolutionary Studies Institute, University of Witwatersrand, notes.

Insights from the Plio-Pleistocene Era

Spearheaded by a collaborative team of researchers from around the globe, this revelation paints a vivid picture of a landscape dominated by expansive grasslands, hinting at the complex interplay of life that thrived in this region during the Plio-Pleistocene era (about 5.3 million years ago). This research marks a significant leap forward in our quest to unravel the mysteries of our planet’s past, providing crucial data for reconstructing the ancient landscapes that were the cradle of humankind. “It is not very common in bovid paleontology to come across a mysterious well-preserved skull. Even if the specimen isn’t complete, the discovery and description of a potential new species of small-sized buffalo is really interesting!” Raphael explains.

Antidorcas From Kromdraai Unit P

Antidorcas from Kromdraai Unit P: (a) Right horn-core of a male (A. recki) shown in side and front views (KW 9995). (b) Left horn-core in front and side views (KW 11161). (c) Right horn-core in front and side views (KW 10704). (d) Right horn-core in side and front views (KW 9611). (e) Partial back of the skull (occipital bone) (KW 10410). Scale = 5 cm. Credit: GENUS: DSI-NRF Centre of Excellence in Palaeosciences. Photograph provided by Dr Rapahel Hanon

These bovids, members of the family Bovidae, which includes modern-day buffalo, antelopes, and gazelles, serve as a key to unlocking the secrets of the past. Their diversity and abundance at Kromdraai offer a glimpse into the diets and behaviors of both large carnivores and our ancient relatives. As prey, these animals shaped the predatory patterns of the region’s megafauna and, by extension, influenced the survival strategies of hominins such as Paranthropus robustus and early Homo species​.

Habitat Preferences and Bovid Diversity

The discovery of extinct species of gazelles such as Gazella gracilior and the presence of a yet-to-be-named buffalo closely related to Syncerus acoelotus indicate a grassland-dominated environment. This finding is corroborated by comparisons with other Plio-Pleistocene sites across South Africa, which suggest that different hominin species were associated with varying habitats.

While Australopithecus appeared to favor woodland and closed-wet environments, early Homo species were found in areas adapted to open and dry conditions. The diverse range of bovids associated with Paranthropus, however, suggests a broad environmental adaptability among these hominins. Raphael explains that this research was somewhat challenging. “One of the biggest challenges was to reconstruct and describe the small buffalo skull (Syncerus sp.) to identify it,” he says.

“The skull was discovered as dozens of small broken bone pieces and Jean-Baptiste Fourvel and myself spent hours on it to be able to refit most of the pieces together so we would be able to tell what kind of animal it was. Even after refitting all the pieces, it was very fragile – therefore difficult to manipulate and identify. The fossil record of the African buffalo is scarce, especially in South Africa, so it was not easy to find relevant information that could help us identify the skull,” he explains.

Small Buffalo Syncerus sp

Small Buffalo Syncerus sp. Skull from Kromdraai Unit P: (a) Front view, (b) Side view, (c) Top view of the frontlet KW 9463. (d) Reconstructed right-side view of the skull. Scale = 5 cm. Credit: GENUS: DSI-NRF Centre of Excellence in Palaeosciences. Photograph by Dr Raphael Hanon

The significance of these findings extends beyond the mere identification of ancient animals. The bovid assemblages of Kromdraai, with their mix of older Plio-Pleistocene and younger Pleistocene taxa, offer a window into the changing landscapes of ancient Africa. These changes, recorded in the bones and teeth of the bovids, reflect the dynamic nature of our planet’s ecosystems and the adaptability of life in the face of shifting climates and habitats.

Moreover, the study of these fossils provides a chronological marker for the site, with the biochronology indicating that Kromdraai Unit P accumulated between 2.9 and 1.8 million years ago. This range is crucial for understanding the timeline of human evolution in the region, offering potential insights into the appearance of Paranthropus robustus and other significant species in southern Africa.

The Kromdraai site continues to be a testament to the richness of our planet’s past, inviting scientists and enthusiasts alike to ponder the intricate connections between the earth’s history and our origins. Raphael is excited to extend his scientific research further. “I will continue to work on bovid paleontology and taxonomy in the future. I hope to be able to conduct a more detailed analysis of specific taxa such as the buffalos or the gazelles in South Africa. Plenty of palaeontological and archaeological sites have yielded a huge amount of bovid fossil material that is just waiting to be studied,” he says.

Reference: “New fossil Bovidae (Mammalia: Artiodactyla) from Kromdraai Unit P, South Africa and their implication for biochronology and hominin palaeoecology” by Raphaël Hanon, Jean-Baptiste Fourvel, Recognise Sambo, Nompumelelo Maringa, Christine Steininger, Bernhard Zipfel and José Braga, 26 March 2024, Quaternary Science Reviews.
DOI: 10.1016/j.quascirev.2024.108621

The study was funded by the Genus-DSI-NRF Centre of Excellence in Palaeosciences.

Read the full story here.
Photos courtesy of

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Portland raccoon untying, moving and retying rope goes viral (video)

The raccoon, dubbed Knottingham by YouTube viewers, went viral for its unexpected knot tying skills.

Last July, my backyard trail camera in Southeast Portland’s Foster-Powell neighborhood captured a dexterous raccoon along a fenceline unraveling an old clothesline that tied up in its pathway and then securing it out of the way in above tree branches.The raccoon, which was later dubbed Knottingham by YouTube viewers, has received nearly 400,000 views on YouTube and been played more than 500,000 times on Facebook. It’s also found on several other social platforms.In addition, Knottingham, a regular nocturnal visitor to my backyard about 100 feet off Powell Boulevard, has received nearly 2,000 entertaining comments including:“A raccoon will drive your car if you aren’t careful with the keys.”“Every time you find a cord in your attic that has mysteriously tied itself into infinity knots that weren’t there when you put it away... you now know who’s to blame.”“And animals can’t do math? That’s 3D spatial reasoning.”“This explains my Christmas lights.”“I, for one, welcome our new procyonidae overlords.”“The raccoon is smarter than 90% of people in Portland. Raccoon for Mayor.”Mark Graves/The OregonianSome commenters were skeptical and believed the video was staged because of gaps in the footage. In reality, the video was genuine and the gaps were due to the camera only being able to record for 15 seconds, then resting for a bit and restarting once motion is detected.After seeing the video take off with interest, I decided to give the curious critter a challenge. I put the clothesline back in the raccoon’s path, added a larger rope attached to a small cedar board and a rubber dog ball hanging from a nearby branch. Within a day or two, Knottingham took interest and brought along some curious young kits to join. Knottingham and the kits continued to visit for weeks after seemingly enjoying the entangled puzzle of ropes and toys. 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They can swim for long periods while periodically holding their breath underwater to seek out food or escape predators.You might see them analyzing an object with their thumb-like paws. This is because they have four times the sensory cells of most animals, making them hyper-responsive to touch. They will feel something in order to identify it, especially in the dark. They’re even known to “wash” their food before eating it.The word “raccoon” comes from the Powhatan word “aroughcun,” which means “animal that scratches with its hands”. Yes, it’s true, raccoons can pick a simple lock. Studies have shown them unlocking complex mechanisms along with latches, jars, doors, coolers and garbage lids. Once learned, the clever problem solvers remember for years and the young learn from the old. In captivity, raccoons have been observed using tools to solve problems. 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Many of them have spent decades there; they cannot be released into the wild because they were raised in captivity or have an injury and won’t survive on their own.Current ambassadors include Julio, a great horned owl who has lived at the rehabilitation center for 20 years; Xena, an American kestrel, and Bybee, an endangered native western painted turtle. They are housed in shaded enclosures at the top of a popular sanctuary trail where tens of thousands of hikers pass by, including summer camps and other youth groups organized by the Bird Alliance.Newton oversaw the daily care of the animals, managed a public interpretive program, including sessions with camps and school field trips and oversaw volunteers working with the animals.Her layoff has shifted the work onto volunteers and left the program’s future up in the air.“Many of us remember visiting these animals as children. We are their home, friends and sanctuary. 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Herman’s layoff came at the height of the busiest season, as the center triaged and fed several hundred birds and other animals, including baby hummingbirds, baby cowbirds, baby crows, baby jays, great horned owls, swallows, squirrels, ducklings, bats and a baby kestrel, volunteers said.Herman was the center’s sole holder of a permit from the Oregon Department of Fish and Wildlife and also fulfilled several requirements that made the program eligible for another permit from the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, both of which allow the center to operate.Her abrupt layoff meant the Bird Alliance was out of compliance for several days and was forced to shutter its care center for 24 hours as another staffer scrambled to secure a new permit, volunteers said.Although staff and volunteers continued to feed and treat the animals during the closure, the center couldn’t accept new animals, leading to several dying, volunteers said.Herman told The Oregonian/OregonLive that despite constant reassurances from the leadership team and the organization’s board that they were working to improve conditions at the center, including by undertaking the land purchase to build a new facility, animal and staff well-being didn’t seem to be a top priority.“I experienced constant pressure to make the program less than it is and to continue to temporarily patch or ignore facilities issues that have been on the verge of catastrophic failure for decades,” she said. “Add to that frequent suggestions from board members and leadership that we should simply turn away people and animals or only take care of endangered species to save money, and a pattern of general promises of support followed by asking us what we needed, and then telling us we were asking for too much.”Wells said staffing at the center had doubled in the past few years. Currently, three full-time staff members, two part-time veterinarians, two seasonal workers and about 100 volunteers take care of the animals there.In a letter to the volunteers shared with The Oregonian/OregonLive, Wells acknowledged the permit snafu.“I want to express my sincerest apologies for the way that we rolled out layoffs during our organization’s incredibly difficult budget cycle,” he wrote. “I want to recognize how deeply the loss of Steph Herman and Katie Newton impacted the Wildlife Care Center community. I also acknowledge that removing their positions increased the workload for everyone else during the busiest time of year.”Wells promised to improve the transparency and timing of communications and said the Bird Alliance would work hard to regain trust and raise more money to ensure adequate staffing levels at the rehabilitation center.To that end, it has added a full-time grant writer and increased staffing to deepen relationships with existing donors and develop relationships with new donors, he told The Oregonian/OregonLive. In the meantime, it has increased the hours and terms for existing seasonal staff at the center.Regaining volunteers’ trust is key as the alliance plans to build a larger animal rehabilitation center to replace the existing one, which is too old and too small to handle the increasing onslaught of animal patients, the organization has said. Two years ago, the current center was further damaged during an ice storm and had to temporarily close for repairs.The Bird Alliance is in the process of purchasing a 12.5-acre site on Northeast 82nd Avenue across from McDaniel High School, the group’s spokesperson Ali Berman confirmed. The property, a former landfill and quarry owned by Mike Hashem, is one of the city’s largest undeveloped tracks and has sat vacant for years.Last week, the state filed a document as part of a court-approved consent order, the final step before the Bird Alliance can close on the property. The document specifies that the organization will be responsible for monitoring and remediating methane emissions at the site.Berman said methane levels at the property have been close to zero for at least a decade, but a monitoring system will be in place. The monitoring doesn’t pose a financial burden, she said.“Bird Alliance of Oregon has long advocated for restoring and redeveloping brownfields,” Berman said. “And now, we have an opportunity to put that in action while providing a valuable community asset and green space that will be accessible to the public.”— Gosia Wozniacka covers environmental justice, climate change, the clean energy transition and other environmental issues. Reach her at gwozniacka@oregonian.com or 971-421-3154.Our journalism needs your support. Subscribe today to OregonLive.com

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Even simple bacteria can anticipate the changing seasons

Cyanobacteria exposed to shorter days are better at surviving cold conditions, showing that even simple organisms can prepare for the arrival or summer and winter

A scanning electron micrograph of Synechococcus cyanobacteriaEYE OF SCIENCE/SCIENCE PHOTO LIBRARY Despite being among the simplest forms of life on Earth, cyanobacteria are able to anticipate and prepare for the changing seasons based on the amount of light they are exposed to. It has been known for more than a century that complex organisms can utilise day length as a cue for future environmental conditions – days get shorter before it gets colder, for example. Phenomena like migration, flowering, hibernation and seasonal reproduction are all guided by such responses in plants and animals, known as photoperiodism, but it has never been seen in simple life forms such as bacteria until now. Luísa Jabbur, then at Vanderbilt University in Nashville, Tennessee, and her colleagues artificially exposed Synechococcus elongatus cyanobacteria to varying day lengths and found that those that experienced simulated short days went on to be two to three times better at surviving ice-cold temperatures, indicating they had prepared for winter-like conditions. By testing shorter and longer periods, the researchers determined that it takes four to six days for the response to develop. These organisms spawn a new generation in a matter of hours, meaning the cells must be passing along the day-length information to their descendants. However, the researchers don’t yet understand how this information is transmitted. Cyanobacteria, which capture energy from sunlight through photosynthesis, have existed for more than 2 billion years and are found almost everywhere on Earth. “The fact that an organism as old and as simple as a cyanobacterium can have photoperiodic responses suggests that this is a phenomenon that evolved much earlier than we might have imagined,” says Jabbur, who is now at the John Innes Centre in Norwich, UK. The team also looked at how patterns of gene expression changed in response to varying day length. Their results suggest that photoperiodism probably evolved by co-opting existing mechanisms to combat acute stresses such as bright light and extreme temperatures. These findings also have implications for the evolution of circadian rhythms, the biological clocks that regulate day-night cycles, says team member Carl Johnson at Vanderbilt University. “I think we have always assumed that daily clocks evolved before organisms could measure day/night length and thereby anticipate the changing seasons,” he says. “But the fact that photoperiodism evolved in such ancient and simple organisms, and our gene expression results implicate stress response pathways that probably evolved very early in life on Earth, suggest that photoperiodism might have evolved before circadian clocks,” says Johnson.

Animals
Energy
Science

How a bat disease may have led to the death of more than 1,000 kids

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Bats have a bad reputation, but they deserve better. The flying mammals are nature’s pest control, swooping over America’s farmland every night to feast on swarms of insects that would otherwise chew through crops.But many of the country’s bat populations are on the decline, wiped out by a devastating fungus that attacks the insect eaters in their sleep.Now, a new study suggests that decline in bats has come at a ghastly cost to human beings.An analysis published Thursday in the journal Science suggests farmers have increased their use of pesticides on crops in response to the population collapse of bats, potentially leading to the deaths of more than 1,000 human infants through intoxication from the chemicals. Past research has linked exposure to pesticides with negative health outcomes, including childhood asthma and death.The finding, though an indirect observation, is a potentially poignant demonstration of the benefits society derives from nature — and, in turn, of the deadly cost to humans when biodiversity is lost.Follow Climate & environment“This study estimates just a few of the consequences we suffer from the disappearance of bats, and they are just one of the species we’re losing,” said Bard College biology professor Felicia Keesing, who was not involved in the study. “These results should motivate everyone, not just farmers and parents, to clamor for the protection and restoration of biodiversity.”Around the world, nature — and by extension, people — are in trouble. Hundreds of thousands of plants and animals are at risk of vanishing forever due to habitat destruction, climate change and other human activities, an extinction crisis potentially on par with the asteroid that wiped out most dinosaurs. In response, nations have promised to protect roughly a third of land and oceans to maintain ecosystems essential to human society.Over the past few years, researchers have revealed many of the hidden ways healthy ecosystems help people thrive. A surge in wolves in Wisconsin resulted in fewer cars colliding with deer, for instance, while a decline in amphibians in Central America led to an uptick in malaria cases.An attack on batsFor bats, the trouble started about two decades ago, when biologists found a cave in Upstate New York littered with bat carcasses. Their noses were covered in white fuzz, as if each bat had done a line of cocaine. A fungus — one imported from Europe or Asia, perhaps on a hiker’s boot — was attacking the bats during their winter slumber.The deadly disease was dubbed white-nose syndrome. It quickly spread across the country, reaching 40 states. The fungus doesn’t infect humans, but that doesn’t mean it is leaving them unscathed. While the damage to bats themselves is clear — the pathogen has wiped out more than 90 percent of some species — the broader effect of the loss of the voracious insectivores on the entire ecosystem was unclear.To suss out that impact, Eyal Frank, an environmental economist at the University of Chicago, compared insecticide use and human infant mortality rates in U.S. counties where the fungus has been spotted to those where it has yet to be found.Frank found that between 2006 and 2017, farmers increased their use of pesticides by about 31 percent in counties where bats were dropping dead due to disease.Knowing that pest-killing compounds can spread through the air and water beyond farms and have negative health effects after they enter people’s bodies, he also analyzed infant mortality rates in each county and saw a nearly 8 percent spike in places where bats were hit by the disease. Frank tested to see if his results were somehow explained by other factors, including the opioid epidemic or unemployment, and saw no effects. “I kicked a lot of different tires.”“Bats are a fantastic example of a species that we like to keep a distance from, but are really impactful in terms of the role they play in ecosystems.,” Frank said.An ‘eye-popping’ effect on peopleFrederik Noack, an environmental economist at the University of British Columbia, found the findings credible and showed how technological solutions such as pesticides are often a poor substitute for the services that nature provides. The study estimated that white-nose syndrome cost farmers about $27 billion in total.But he added that study still leaves unanswered questions for further research, including how babies are exposed to insecticides, where insect-eating bats are concentrated across the country and why the study found no effect on other health outcomes such as birth weight.“Given the large effects, we should investigate the pathways through which pesticides affect birth outcomes. So far, it is unclear how people get exposed to pesticides,” said Noack, who co-wrote a policy analysis that accompanied Frank’s research.Keesing, the Bard College biologist, noted the study didn’t directly measure changes in bat or insect populations and said she would like to see more field research.“Without seeing the underlying data, I can’t evaluate the strength of the evidence supporting these linkages, but the impacts estimated here are eye-popping,” she said.Other scientists are now racing to figure out a way to stop the spread of the fungus, deploying ultraviolet lights on cave walls and administering vaccines to bats themselves to snuff out the disease.“It is not only the mega charismatic species that are warm and fuzzy and evoke a desire to hug and cuddle with them that provide value and benefit to us as people,” Frank said.

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